Chapter 9 Stone disease
- Kidney stones: epidemiology [link]
- Kidney stones: types and predisposing factors [link]
- Kidney stones: mechanisms of formation [link]
- Factors predisposing to specific stone types [link]
- Evaluation of the stone former [link]
- Kidney stones: presentation and diagnosis [link]
- Kidney stone treatment options: watchful waiting [link]
- Stone fragmentation techniques: extracorporeal lithotripsy (ESWL) [link]
- Intracorporeal techniques of stone fragmentation (fragmentation within the body) [link]
- Kidney stone treatment: flexible ureteroscopy and laser treatment [link]
- Kidney stone treatment: percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) [link]
- Kidney stones: open stone surgery [link]
- Kidney stones: medical therapy (dissolution therapy) [link]
- Ureteric stones: presentation [link]
- Ureteric stones: diagnostic radiological imaging [link]
- Ureteric stones: acute management [link]
- Ureteric stones: indications for intervention to relieve obstruction and/or remove the stone [link]
- Ureteric stone treatment [link]
- Treatment options for ureteric stones [link]
- Prevention of calcium oxalate stone formation [link]
- Bladder stones [link]
- Management of ureteric stones in pregnancy [link]
1 Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ (1997) Family history and risk of kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol, 8:1568–73.
2 Borghi L, et al. (1996) Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: a 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol 155:839–43.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
3 Curhan GC, et al. (1997) Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Int Med 126:497–504.
4 Borghi L, et al. (2002) Comparison of 2 diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 346:77–84.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
5 Curhan GC, et al. (1993) A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med 328:833–8.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 The precise distribution of stone types will vary depending on the characteristics of the study population (geographical location, racial distribution, etc.). Hence, the quoted figures do not equate to 100.
2 80% of uric acid stones are pure uric acid, and 20% contain some calcium oxalate as well.
3 Ramakumar S, Patterson DE, LeRoy AJ, et al. (1999) Prediction of stone composition from plain radiographs: a prospective study. J Endo Urol 13:397–401.
1 Haddad MC, Sharif HS, Abomelha ME, et al. (1992) Management of renal colic: redefining the role of the urogram. Radiology 184:35–6.
1 Burgher A et al. (2004) Progression of nephrolithiasis: long-term outcomes with observation of asymptomatic calculi J Endourol 18:534–9.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Borley NC, Rainford D, Anson KM, Watkin N. (2007) What activities are safe with kidney stones? A review of occupational and travel advice in the UK. Br J Urol Int 99:494–6.
3 Blandy JP, Singh M (1976) The case for a more aggressive approach to staghorn stones. J Urol 115:505–6. [Web of Science] [Medline]
4 Rous SN and Turner WR (1977) Retrospective study of 95 patients with staghorn calculus disease J Urol 118:902. [Web of Science] [Medline]
5 Teichmann J (1995) Long-term renal fate and prognosis after staghorn calculus management. J Urol 153:1403–7.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 Chaussy CG, Brendel W, Schmidt E (1980) Extracorporeal induced destruction of kidney stones by shock waves. Lancet 2:1265–8.
1 Walsh PC, Retik AB, Vaughan D, et al. (2002) Campbell’s Urology, 8th edn. Amsterdam: W.B. Saunders/Elsevier, p. 3395–7.
1 Kupeli B, Isen K, Biri H, et al. (1999) Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy in anomalous kidneys. J Endourol 13:39–52.
2 Dasgupta P, et al. (2004) Flexible ureterorenoscopy: prospective analysis of the Guy’s experience. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons 86:367–70.[CrossRef]
1 Segura JW, Preminger GM, Assimos DG, et al. (1994) Nephrolithiasis clinical guidelines panel summary report on the management of staghorn calculi. J Urol 151:1648–51. [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 Luchs JS, Katz DS, Lane DS, et al. (2002) Utility of hematuria testing in patients with suspected renal colic: correlation with unenhanced helical CT results. Urology 59:839.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Kobayashi T, Nishizawa K, Mitsumori K, Ogura K (2003) Impact of date of onset on the absence of hematuria in patients with acute renal colic. J Urol 1770:1093–6.
1 Smith RC, Verga M, McCarthy S, Rosenfield AT (1996) Diagnosis of acute flank pain: value of unenhanced helical CT. Am J Roentgen 166:97–101.[Abstract]
2 Caro JJ, Trindale E, McGregor M (1991) The risks of death and severe non-fatal reactions with high vs low osmolality contrast media. Am J Roentgen 156:825–32.[Abstract]
3 Thomson JM, Glocer J, Abbott C, et al. (2001) Computed tomography versus intravenous urography in diagnosis of acute flank pain from urolithiasis: a randomized study comparing imaging costs and radiation dose. Australas Radiol 45:291–7.[CrossRef] [Medline]
4 Louca G, Liberopoulos K, Fidas A, et al. (1999) MR urography in the diagnosis of urinary tract obstruction. Eur Urol 35:102.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
* Peristalsis, the forward propulsion of a bolus of urine down the ureter, can only occur if the walls of the ureter above the bolus of urine can coapt i.e. close firmly together. If they cannot, as occurs in a ureter distended with urine, the bolus of urine cannot move distally).
1 Preminger GM et al. (2007) 2007 Guideline for the management of ureteral calculi (Joint EAU/AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel. J Urol 178:2418–34.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Miller OF et al. (1999) Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi. J Urol 162:688–91.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
3 Dellabella M et al. (2003) Efficacy of tamsulosin in the medical management of juxtavesical ureteral stones. J Urol 170:2202–5.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
4 Hussain Z et al. (2001) Use of glyceryl trinitrate patches in patients with ureteral stones: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Urology 58:521–5.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
* An arbitrary definition of leucocytosis, since patients with ureteric stones often have mildly elevated white blood count.
1 Holm–Nielsen A, Jorgensen T, Mogensen P, Fogh J (1981) The prognostic value of probe renography in ureteric stone obstruction. Br J Urol 53:504–7.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Preminger GM et al. (2007) 2007 Guideline for the management of ureteral calculi Joint EAU/AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel. J Urol 178:2418–34.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
3 Pearle MS et al. (1998) Optimal method of urgent decompression of the collecting system for obstruction and infection due to ureteral calculi J Urol 160:1260.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 Lee WJ et al. (1994) Emergency percutaneous nephrostomy: results and complications J Vasc Intervent Rad 5:135.
2 Pocock RD et al. (1986) Double J stents. A review of 100 patients Br J Urol 58:629.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
3 Smedlev FH et al. (1988) J (pigtail) ureteric catheter insertions: a retrospective review. Ann Roy Coll Surg (Engl) 70:377.
1 Preminger et al (2007). 2007 Guideline for the management of ureteral calculi. Joint EAU/AUA Nephrolituiasis Guideline Panel. J. Urol 178: 2418–34.
* (ESWL after ‘push-back’ of the stone into the kidney (i.e. into the renal pelvis or calyces) is a historical treatment—if the ESWL fails to fragment the stone, a relatively straightforward operation of ureteroscopy has been converted into the technically more challenging one of flexible ureterorenoscopy. So, at all costs avoid pushing the stone back into the kidney when inserting a J stent, but warn the patient of this possibility).
1 Preminger GM et al. (2007) 2007 Guideline for the management of ureteral calculi Joint EAU/AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel. J Urol 178:2418–34.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Pace KT et al. (2000) Low success rate of repeat shock wave lithotripsy for ureteral stones after failed initial treatment. J Urol 164:1905–7.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 Curhan GC, et al. (1993) A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. NEJM 328:833–8.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Borghi L, et al. (1996) Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: A 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol 155:839–43.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
3 Curhan G, et al. (1997) Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Int Med 126:497–504.
4 Kok DJ (1990) The effects of dietary excesses in animal protein and in sodium on the composition and crystallization kinetics of calcium oxalate monohydrate in urines of healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:861–7.[Abstract]
5 Curhan G, et al. (1998) Beverage use and risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Intern Med 128:534–40.
6 Robertson WG, et al. (1982) Prevalence of urinary stone disease in vegetarians. Eur Urol 8:334–9. [Web of Science] [Medline]
7 Borghi, L (2002) Comparison of two diets for prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. NEJM 346:77–84.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
8 Robertson WG, Peacock M, Ouimet D, et al. (1981) The main risk for calcium oxalate stone disease in man: hypercalciuria or mild hyperoxaluria? In: Smith LH, Robertson WG, Finlay-son B (eds.) Urolithiasis: Clinical and Basic Research. New York: Plenum Press, p. 3–12.
1 Ord J (2003) Bladder management and risk of bladder stone formation in spinal cord injured patients. J Urol. 170:1734–7.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
1 Coe FL, Parks JH, Lindhermer MD (1978) Nephrolithiasis during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 298:324–6. [Web of Science] [Medline]
2 Hendricks SK (1991) An algorithm for diagnosis and therapy of urolithiasis during pregnancy Surg Gynecol Obst 172:49–54.
3 Hellawell GO, Cowan NC, Holt SJ, Mutch SJ (2002) A radiation perspective for treating loin pain in pregnancy by double-pigtail stents. Br J Urol Int 90:801–8.
4 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (1997) Medical radiation exposure of pregnant and potentially pregnant women. NCRP Report no. 54. Bethesda, MD: NCRPM.
5 American College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Committee on Obstetric Practice (1995) Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging During Pregnancy. ACOG Committee Opinion no. 158. Washington DC: ACOG.
6 Roy C (1996) Assessment of painful ureterohydronephrosis during pregnancy by MR urography. Eur Radiol 6:334–8. [Web of Science] [Medline]
7 Watterson JD, Girvan AR, Beiko DT, et al. (2002) Ureteroscopy and holmium: an emerging definitive management strategy for symptomatic ureteral calculi in pregnancy. Urology 60:383–7.[CrossRef] [Web of Science] [Medline]
8 Sharp C, Shrimpton JA, Bury RF. Joint Guidance from National Radiological Protection Board, College of Radiographers and Royal College of Radiologists 1998. Advice on Exposure to Ionizing Radiation during Pregnancy. Produced by the National Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon, OX11 0RQ, U.K. (www.nrpb.org)
